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VOIC.     -    ...DUCTION  AND  ANALYSIS 


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i; 


YoiCE  Production 

AND 

Analysis. 

BY 

Prof.  William  Hallock 

AND 

Dr.  Floyd  S.  Muckey. 


Neav  York  City,  August,  1897. 
The  fact  that  the  study  of  voice  jDroduction  requires  a  knowl- 
edge of  acoustics  as  well  as  of  anatomy,  lead  us  to  unite  our 
forces  in  what  we  agreed  should  be  an  impartial  experimental 
research.  The  following  articles  which  appeared  in  the  "  Look- 
er-On "  during  the  siunmer  of  1896,  give  approximately  the 
present  state  of  oui*  investigation ;  the  final  presentation  of  our 
results  may  differ  in  form  and  in  details,  but  will  not  in  the 
broad  and  general  principles  set  forth. 

WILLIAM  HALLOCK, 

Columbia  Univebsity. 
FLOYD  S.  MUCKEY, 

8  West  33d  Street. 


VOICE   PRODUCTION    AND 
ANALYSIS. 

By  Prof.  Wm.  Hallock. 
Dr.  Floyd  S.  Muckey. 

Thousands  of  persons  whose  voices  naturally  are 
pleasant,  sweet,  acceptable,  find,  as  the  result  of  train- 
ing, of  learning"  to  sing,  that  their  voices  are  ruined. 
The  result  of  their  efforts  is  ability  to  perform  all  sorts 
of  vocal  gymnastics.  They  have  the  trill  and  tremolo 
and  arpeggio  and  many  other  accomplishments.  Their 
singing,  however,  has  no  heart,  no  soul.  The  voice  is 
merely  the  wreck  of  its  former  self,  and  the  vocal  organs 
are  irreparably  damaged. 

This  result  of  the  present  methods  of  voice-culture  is 
all  the  more  remarkable  when  it  is  remembered  that 
other  physical  training,  if  properly  conducted,  does  not 
injure  the  bodily  organs.  Any  one  by  gymnastics  can 
be  made  a  better  athlete  than  he  is  naturally.  A  person 
who  is  taught  to  play  the  piano  may  not  always  develop 
into  an  artist.  The  muscular  exercise  required  by  such 
training  does  not,  however,  result  in  cramped  fingers  or 
in  loss  of  sensation.  Why,  then,  do  the  present  meth- 
ods of  instruction  in  vocal  music  result  so  frequently  in 
irretrievable  injury  to  the  voice  and  vocal  organs  ?  To 
answer  this  question,  not  empirically,  but  scientifically, 
is  the  purpose  of  this  series  of  articles. 

Must  we  not  admit  that  somethino-  is  wrono-  in  the 
method  of  training  these  vocal  shipwrecks  ?  And  since 
these  results  follow  most  all  of  the  "  methods "  as 
apphed  by  various  teachers,  is  not  the  inference  justi- 


2  THE  LOOKER-ON. 

fied  that,  even  if  the  correct  method  lurks  somewhere 
amid  this  mass  of  error,  it  is  not  sufficiently  understood 
nor  strictly  and  definitely  appHed  ?  Joseph  Henry  once 
said  that  if  the  fundamental  law  of  the  universe  were 
told  to  us  this  minute,  it  would  undoubtedly  be  too  sim- 
ple for  us  to  understand  or  to  apply  immediately.  We 
shall  revert  to  this  subject  later  on. 

After  some  personal  experience  mth  a  ruined  voice, 
and  considerable  study  of  the  mechanism  of  the  vocal 
apparatus,  one  of  us  (Dr.  Muckey)  was  led  to  make  some 
scientific  investigations  of  the  problem  involved  in  the 
satisfactory  production  of  a  correct  tone.  This  neces- 
sarily included  the  question  of  the  strict  scientific  defi- 
nition of  a  tone  accepted  as  artistically  correct.  The 
other  part  of  the  research  then  becomes  the  study  of  the 
conditions  which  enable  a  singer  to  produce  the  nearest 
possible  approximation  to  such  a  tone.  In  this  first 
article  is  discussed  the  means  of  tone  analysis  and  tone 
modification.  In  later  articles  wiU  be  considered  the 
question  of  the  proper  use  of  the  vocal  mechanism. 
In  conclusion  a  reuime  of  the  results  of  our  work  on 
voice-analysis  wiU  be  given. 

Resonance  is  the  keystone  of  our  work.  It  is  at  once 
our  tool  and  the  object  upon  which  we  labor.  For  our 
purpose  resonance  may  be  defined  as  the  re-enforcement 
of  a  tone  by  a  quantity  of  more  or  less  confined  air,  the 
inherent  rate  of  vibration  of  wliich  is  identical  with  that 
of  the  tone  re-enforced.  Such  a  quantity  of  air  receiv- 
ing successive  impulses  from  the  vibrating  object  comes 
into  vibration  itself,  thus  giving  to  the  surrounding  air 
a  much  greater  amphtude  of  vibration  and  consequently 
greater  intensity  and  carrying  power  of  the  tone.  The 
jew's-harp  is  an  excellent  illustration.  In  it  the  mouth 
cavity  re-enforces  the  tones  of  the  httle  tongue.     In  fact 


]'OICE   PRODUCTION  AND  ANALYSIS.  3 

the  size  of  the  cavity  in  this  case,  selecting  its  own  pitch 
from  tlie  complexity  of  sounds  produced  by  the  harp, 
and  so  re-enforcing-  it,  makes  it  the  characteristic  tone, 
which  varies  Avith  the  size  and  shape  of  the  mouth  cavity. 
To  a  lesser  extent  do  the  cavities  of  the  mouth  and  nose 
act  selectively  upon  the  tones  produced  by  the  vocal 
cords,  thus  modifying-  the  klafig-tint  {Timbre^  klang- 
/a?'bc)  of  the  tone,  as  in  articulation,  but  never  deter- 
mining- the  characteristic  j^itch  (fundamental),  which  is 
entirely  controlled  in  the  larynx.  This  point  will  be 
more  fully  explained  in  the  second  article,  when  the 
management  of  the  vocal  cords  is  treated. 

Fig.  1  is  a  section  through  the  head  and  neck,  show- 
ing- the  location  of  the  parts  essential  to  our  study. 
Many  of  the  parts  will  be  readily  recognized.  One  is 
at  once  struck  with  the  great  size  of  the  cavity  of  the 
nose  and  upper  pharynx,  even  as  compared  with  that  of 
the  mouth.  The  soft  palate  (12)  acts  as  a  door  between 
these  two  resonators.  When  it  is  drawn  back  and  closed 
(as  in  Fig.  2),  it  cuts  off  the  upper  cavity  entirely,  leav- 
ing- only  the  mouth  available,  for  it  is  impossible  for  air- 
waves in  the  mouth  to  set  the  air  in  the  nose  in  motion 
through  either  the  bony  roof  of  the  mouth,  or  the  flesh 
of  the  soft  palate.  The  vocal  cords  are  attached  in  front 
to  the  middle  of  the  thyroid  cartilage  (Fig.  1  No.  6), 
and,  at  the  back,  to  the  arytenoid  cartilages  (No.  14), 
which  sit  upon  the  rear  upper  part  of  the  cricoid  carti- 
lage (No.  17).  No.  17  sits  directly  upon  the  top  of  the 
A^andpipe.  The  sound-waves  from  the  cords  pass  out, 
under  and  behind,  the  epiglottis  (No.  13) ;  thence  past 
the  soft  palate  (No.  12),  either  into  the  nasal  cavity  and 
out  the  nostrils  or  over  the  tongue,  under  the  hard  palate 
(No.  11)  and  roof  of  the  mouth,  and  out  between  the 
teeth   and     lips.      Nos.   2,   3,   4,     are    the     turbinated 


THE  LOOKER-ON. 


bones  which  bulge  out  into  the  nose  cavity,  breaking-  it 
up  into  narrow  passages,  which  is  also  done  by  the 
septum,  or  partition,  which  divides  the  nasal  cavity  into  a 
right  and  left  half.  This  irregularity  and  complexity  of 
the  S2)aces  and  passages  enable  the  nasal  cavity  to  lend 


Fig.  1. — Vertical  section  of  the  head  to  show  h)cation  and  relative  size 
of  the  resonance  cavities.  1.  Frontal  sinus;  2,  3,  and  4.  Turbinated 
bones;  5.  Hyoid  bone;  6.  Thyroid  cartilage;  17.  Cricoid  cartilage;  7 
and  18.  Top  ring  of  the  trachea;  9.  Sphenoidal  sinus;  10.  Entrance 
to  the  eustachian  tube  ;  11.  Hard  palate;  12.  Soft  palate;  13.  Epiglottis; 
14.   Arytenoid  cartilage ;  15.  Arytenoideus  muscle;  16.   Vertebra. 

resonant  re-enforcement  to  a  much  greater  range  of  tones 
than  if  it  were  regular  and  simple.  This  is  a  fact  of 
fundamental  importance  in  the  discussion  of  klang-tint 
and  articulation,  to  be  treated  in  another  article.  No. 
10  is  the  entrance  to  the  eustachian  tube,  leading   to 


VOICE   PRODUCT/ON  AND  ANALYSIS. 


the  inner  ear.  No.  \)  is  the  s[)henoidal  sinus,  and  No. 
1  is  the  frontal  sinus.  It  is  sometimes  urged  that  these 
cavities,  together  with  the  antra,  aid  in  resonance,  hut  it 
is  practically  impossihle,  since  at  hest  their  openings  are 
small,  and   they  are   usually   closed   entirely,  as   is    the 


Fig.  2. — Vertical  section  of  the  head  similar  to  Fig.  1,  but  showing 
how  raising  the  soft  palate,  12,  and  closing  the  passage  dimini.sh  the 
space  available  for  resonant  re-enforcement  by  cutting  off  the  large  cavity 
of  the  upper  pharynx  and  nose. 

cavity  of  the  inner  ear.  A  closed  cavity  can  not  re-en- 
force a  tone.  This  statement  applies  also  to  the  cavities 
below  the  vocal  cords ;  that  is,  the  "  chest  cavities."  Vi- 
brations of  the  air  in  them  may  take  place,  and  possibly 
may  exert  some  influence  on  the  cords,  but  they  cannot 
aid  in  the  resonant  re-enforcement  of  the  tone.  The  in- 
tensity, or  carrying-  power,  of  a  tone  depends  upon  the 


THE  LOOKER-ON. 


height "  of  the  air-wayes,  and  may  be  obtained  by  in- 
creased activity  of  the  source  of  sound  (of  the  cords)  or 
by  resonant  re-enforcement.  The  former  method  strains 
the  cords  and  exhausts  the  breath ;  the  Latter  requires  no 
effort,  only  the  correct  use  of  our  resonance  cavities,  as 
will  be  shown  later.  Of  course  the  pitch  of  the  tone 
depends  upon  the  length  of  the  air-waves,  or  rate  of 
vibration.  Our  control  of  pitch  will  be  discussed,  to- 
gether with  the  larynx,  in  the  second  paper. 

It  will  be  seen,  then,  that  the  cavities  available  for 
resonant  modification  and  re-enforcement  of  tone  are 
those  of  the  upper  and  lower  pharynx,  the  mouth,  and 
the  nose.  The  muscles  which  control  the  size,  arrange- 
ment, and  openings  of  these  are  the  muscles  of  the  soft 
palate,  tongue,  jaw,  and  lips.  It  is  quite  easy  to  deter- 
mine whether  the  nose  cavity  is  in  use  and  the  soft 
palate  door  down.  While  singing  the  tone,  gently  close 
the  mouth.  If  the  palate  is  closed,  the  tone  will  stop ; 
if  it  is  open,  the  tone  will  continue  through  the  nose. 
Again,  while  singing,  gently  close  the  nose  with  thumb 
and  finger,  it  will  not  affect  the  character  of  the  tone 
if  the  palate  is  cutting  off  the  nasal  resonance,  but 
will  give  it  a  nasal  (s/c)  tint  if  the  palate  is  down. 

The  apparatus  employed  for  the  analysis  of  tone  is 
practically  that  devised  and  used  by  Konig  and  Helm- 
holtz,  but  with  some  essential  modifications.  It  depends 
upon  resonance ;  that  is,  upon  the  fact  that  a  hollow 
sphere  Avith  a  circular  opening,  about  one-fourth  to  one- 
sixth  the  diameter  of  the  hollow  sphere,  will  re-enforce 
one  pitch,  and  one  only.  Its  air  can  normally  vibrate  at 
that  rate,  and  at  no  other.  The  pitch  of  the  tone  which 
such  a  "  resonator "  will  pick  out  depends  upon  the 
diameter  of  the  sphere  and  that  of  the  oj^ening.  Fig.  3 
shows  a  section  of  such  a  resonator,  as  made  by  Konig. 


VOICE  PRODUCTION  AND  ANALYSIS.  7 

B  is  the  opening-  ^vltll  a  slight  lip,  with  Avhieh  it  is 
tuned.  C  is  a  sUght  conical  extension  at  the  back, 
oj)posite  to  B.  If  this  extension  is  put  into  the  ear  it 
will  be  found  that  all  sounds  are  heard  faintly,  except 
those  of  the  pitch  to  which  the  resonator  is  tuned,  and 
this  is  greatly  re-enforced.  With  sets  of  such  resonators 
one  is  in  a  position  to  determine,  by  listening,  whether  a 
given  tone  is  present  in  any  complex  sound.  This 
method  is  very  accurate  and  delicate,  but  very  incon- 
venient. Konig  devised  a  better  way  of  observing  what 
the  resonators  are  doing.  We  have,  however,  decidedly 
modified  Konig's  apparatus.  The  resonators  A  (Fig.  3) 
are  so  mounted  in  a  plank  P  that  the  point  C  is  flush 
with  the  back.  A  block,  H,  screwed  upon  the  back  of 
P,  has  a  conical  hole  conaxial  with  the  resonators,  into 
which  fits  the  conical  plug  G.  The  inner  end  of  G  is 
hollowed  out  to  leave  a  small  cavity  D,  over  which  a 
thin  membrane  of  rubber  is  stretched.  The  latter  is 
bound  around  the  end  of  G.  Gas  enters  the  cavity  D 
l)y  the  tube  E,  escaping  by  the  central  tube,  and  burn- 
ing in  the  small  flame  at  F.  When  the  tone  of  this 
resonator  is  sounded,  the  air  in  A  responds  (that  is, 
it  vibrates),  making  the  drum-head  at  D  vibrate,  thus 
causing  the  little  flame  at  F  to  jump  at  the  same  rate  as 
the  vibrations  of  the  tone.  Looking  simply  at  the  flame 
w^e  see  little  change,  since  its  jumps  are  so  rapid,  128  to 
1024  per  second,  that  the  eye  fails  to  distinguish  them. 
If,  however,  we  observe  the  flame  in  a  moving  mirror 
each  jump  will  appear  in  a  different  place,  and  hence  be 
visible.  A  stationary  flame  viewed  in  such  a  rotating 
mirror  appears  as  a  line  of  light ;  a  jumping  flame 
appears  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw,  the  distance  between  the 
teeth  depending  upon  the  relation  of  the  rapidity  of 
motion  of  the  flame  to  that  of  the  mirror.     Similarly,  if 


8  THE  LOOKER-ON 

the  image  of  such  a  flame  fall  upon  a  moving  photo- 
graphic plate,  the  trace  developed  will  be  a  true  report 
as  to  the  state  of  rest  or  agitation  of  the  flame.  Such 
are  the  principles  and  devices  underlying  the  apparatus 
shown  in  Figs.  4  and  5.  Fig.  4  is  the  front  view,  show- 
ing the  eight  resonators  of  various  sizes,  and  the  rotat- 
ing mirror,  and  a  few  of  the  small  flames,  and  the 
camera  at  the  back.  In  Fio\  5  are  seen  the  "  manomet- 
ric  caf)sules "  with  their  connecting  tubes  and  little 
flames.  A  spherical  resonator  stands  upon  its  mouth  on 
the  corner  of  the  table,  and  our  standard  fork  with  its 
cylindrical  resonator  stands  upon  the  stool.  A  device 
at  the  back  of  the  camera  enables  us  to  move  the  photo- 
grajihic  plate  across  an  opening  through  which  fall  the. 
images  of  the  flames.  This  gives  a  record  of  the  report 
of  each  flame  and  its  resonator,  upon  any  tone  produced 
in  front  of  them.  Fig.  6  is  such  a  record  when  a  cer- 
tain voice  was  singing  a  (^as  in  father),  upon  the  pitch  of 
our  standard  fork,  which  is  128  vibrations  per  second, 
or  about  "  bass  C."  The  number  of  vibrations  that  the 
fundamental  or  characteristic  tone  or  pitch  of  a  string, 
bears  to  the  rate  of  its  overtones,  harmonics,  or  upper 
partials,  is  the  ratio  of  1  to  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  etc.  Hence 
our  resonators  are  tuned  to  bass  C,  and  its  first  seven 
overtones,  whose  rates  of  vibrations  and  apj)roximate 
pitches  are  given  below. 

Fundamental,   128  vib.  per  sec.  about  bass  C 

"  "       middle  C 

u  u  u      Q 

"  •  "       treble  G 

u  u  u      J] 

u  a  u     Q 

U  U  U    ^Jy 

"  "       high  C 


1st  overtone 

256 

2d 

384 

3d 

512 

4th       " 

640 

5th       " 

768 

6th       " 

896 

7th       " 

1024 

VOICE  PRODUCTION  AND  ANALYSIS.  Si 

The  number  of  points  in  the  lines  in  Fig.  6  are  pro- 
portional to  the  above  numbers  ;  that  is,  to  1,  2,  3,  4,  etc. 
If  any  one  of  these  tones  had  been  absent,  there  would 
have  been  no  points  in  its  line.  The  above  series  of 
overtones  of  a  string'  were  adopted  because  they  are  the 
overtones  in  the  voice,  and,  moreover,  as  will  be  made 
evident  in  the  second  paper,  because  the  vocal  apparatus 
is  a  stringed  instrument,  both  in  theory  and  practice. 
Thus  an  instrument  has  been  obtained  which  can  analyze 
certain  complex  sounds.  It  is  our  purpose  to  discuss 
the  results  obtained  with  it  in  investig-atino-  voices  of  all 
degrees  of  merit,  from  our  own  to  those  of  the  de 
Reszkes'.  These  results  manifest  the  effects  of  resonance 
upon  carrying  power,  upon  /clang- tint  (timbre),  and  upon 
articulation. 

It  will,  however,  be  necessary  first  to  discuss  the  vi- 
brations of  strings,  reeds,  and  membranes,  and  the  possi- 
ble operations  of  our  vocal  mechanism,  and  the  laws 
which  govern  them.  This  will  form  the  subject  of  the 
second  paper. 

( To  be  continued  in  September  number. ) 


VOICE  PRODUCTION  AND  ANAL- 
YSIS. 

By   Prof.  Wm.  Hallock. 
Dr.  Floyd  S.  Muckey.. 
II. 

N    the    present   paper  we  discuss  the    behavior   of 
vibrating  strings,  reeds,  etc.,  and  apply  the  conclu- 
sions directly  to  the  explanation  of  the  mechanism 
of  Voice  Production.     In  a  later  article  the  results  ob- 
tained in  our  photographic  analysis  of  various  voices,  es- 
pecially those  of  noted  singers,  will  be  considered. 

If  we  examine  a  string  attached  at  each  end  and  vi- 
brating, we  shall  find  that  three  factors  control  the  rate 
of  vibration — in  other  words,  the  pitch  of  the  tone 
emitted.  These  factors  are  the  length,  weight,  and  ten- 
sion of  the  string.  The  rate  of  vibration  of  a  string  is 
inversely  proportional  to  the  length  of  the  string — i.e., 
a  string  of  half  the  length  of  another  will  vibrate  twice 
as  fast,  and  hence  will  si-ive  the  octave.  The  rate  is  pro- 
portional to  the  square  root  of  the  stretching  force.     If 


178  THE  LOOKER-ON. 

we  wish  to  raise  the  pitch  of  a  string  to  the  octave  by 
increased  tension,  Ave  must  put  upon  it  not  twice,  hut 
four  times,  the  stretching-  force.  The  rate  is  inversely 
proportional  to  the  weight  of  the  string.  A  string-  of 
half  the  weight  would  give  the  octave,  other  things  being 
equal.  It  will  be  shown  later  that  the  larynx  contains 
the  means  for  varying  these  three  factors.  The  klaufj- 
tint  (timbre)  of  the  tone  produced  by  a  string  depends 
upon  the  number  and  relative  strength  of  the  overtones, 
or  harmonics,  or  upper  partials.  The  mathematical 
theory,  as  well  as  the  experimental  results,  show  that 
these  overtones  form  a  series  whose  rates  of  vibration, 
together  with  that  of  the  fundamental  or  pitch  tone,  are 
proportional  to  the  natural  numbers  1,  2,  3,  etc.  For 
every  vibration  of  the  fundamental  there  are  two  in  the 
first  overtone,  three  in  the  second,  and  so  on.  Note»well 
that  these  are  in  harmony  with  the  fundamental  and 
each  other,  at  least  to  No.  6,  then  also  8,  10,  and  12. 

There  are  several  very  satisftictory  ways  of  showing 
how  a  string  divides  up  into  segments  when  vibrating  to 
its  various  overtones.  Fig.  1  gives  a  series  of  photo- 
graphs of  a  vibrating  string  taken  by  Prof.  W.  L.  Robb, 
and  kindly  given  for  use  here.  Photograph  marked  A 
shows  the  string  swinging,  as  it  does  when  giving  its 
"fundamental"  or  pitch  tone.  This  is  its  slowest  rate, 
and  consequently  produces  its  lowest-pitched  tone.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  string  moves  as  a  whole  from  one 
side  to  the  other  in  a  very  simple  motion.  A  string  vi- 
brating in  this  way  would  give  a  j>wi'e  or  simple  tone. 
A  "pure  tone"  is  one  Avhich  is  produced  by  one  single 
rate  of  vibration,  as  a  tuning-fork  with  its  resonator. 
This  is  the  definition  universally  adopted  in  the  science 
of  acoustics.  It  might  be  well  for  writers  upon  music 
to  conform  to  this  usage  and  not  call  a  tone  by  Melba 


VOICE  PRODUCTION  AND  ANALYSIS.       179 


*^pure,"  when  they  mean  smooth  or  fine  or  pleasing, 
and  when  the  fundamental  has  at  least  three  or  four 
overtones  with  it.  B  shows  the  same  string*  as  A,  only 
now  vibrating  to  the  first  overtone,  the  octave,  twice  as 
rapidly,  having  a  "  node,"  or  point  of  rest,  in  the  center, 
and  two  segments.  One  readily  sees  that  the  effective 
length  in  B  is  one-half  that  in  A.  In  C  we  have  the 
second  overtone  the  fifth  above  the  octave,  with  two 
nodes  and  three  segments,  and  Avith  one-third  the  effec- 
tive length  of  A.  D  is  the  third  overtone,  the  double 
octave,  with  three  nodes  and  four  segments.  E  is  a 
photograph  of  the  same  string  vibrating  so  as  to  give 
several  overtones  at  once.  It  is  not  known  at  present 
which  overtones  are  active  in  E. 

If  now  we  turn  our  attention  to  the  case  of  a  vibrat- 
ing reed  or  rod,  fastened  at  one  end  and  free  at  the 
other,  we  find  its  pitch  controlled  by  its  length,  thick- 
ness, and  elasticity.  The  ratios  of  the  rate  of  vibration 
of  the  fundamental  to  its  overtones  are  about  as  1  to 
6i^  to  7,  and  to  the  squares  of  the  odd  numbers,  3",  5"-, 
etc.  Note  well  in  this  connection  that  there  are  five 
overtones  in  a  string  before  we  come  to  the  first  over- 
tone of  the  reed ;  also  that  none  of  the  overtones  of  the 
reed  are  in  simple  harmony  with  either  the  fundamental 
or  with  each  other;  also  that  their  pitch  varies  with 
the  varying  form  of  the  reed. 

In  the  case  of  disks  and  membranes  there  are  no  har- 
monious overtones.  In  fact,  Helmholtz  classes  reeds 
(rods),  disks,  and  membranes  as  sources  of  sound  "with 
inharmonic  overtones." 

Musical  instruments  and  voices  differ  from  each  other 
in  Maiuj-thit ;  that  is  to  say,  in  the  relation  of  the  num- 
ber, pitch,  and  intensity  of  the  overtones  to  the  funda- 
mental.    It  is  this  relation  that  makes  one  piano  "  tin 


180  THE  LOOKER-ON. 

panny,"  and  another  rich  and  melodious ;  that  makes 
one  voice  strident  and  disagreeal)le,  anotlier  sweet  and 
full  of  feeling-.  A  pure  tone  cannot  be  varied  except  in 
intensity.  Its  character  remains  the  same.  A  lip  organ 
pipe  or  a  flute  cannot  give  the  rich,  full  tone  of  the 
A^iolin,  because  it  is  practically  a  pure  tone.  In  articu- 
lation the  different  vowel  sounds  are  entirely  due  to  this 
variation  of  klanfj-t'iiit.  This  will  be  shown  very  clearly 
in  the  photographs  with  the  last  article. 

The  klang-tint  of  instruments  is  controlled  in  various 
ways,  according  to  the  method  of  tone  production.  For 
example,  in  the  piano  the  main  factors  are  the  length 
and  weight  of  the  string,  the  hardness  and  shape  of  the 
hammer,  the  sharpness  of  the  blow%  and  the  distance  of 
the  point  struck  from  the  end  of  the  string.  To  these 
may  be  added  the  resonant  qualities  of  the  frame  and 
sounding-board.  But  when  the  j^iano  is  finished,  its 
tone,  its  klang-tint,  is  determined;  the  performer  can 
do  very  little  to  change  the  klang-tint  of  a  tone  w  ithout 
at  the  same  time  varying  its  intensity. 

The  enormous  superiority  of  a  good  violin  over  a  poor 
one  lies  in  the  resonant  properties  of  the  w^ood,  and  the 
cavity  and  openings.  That  which  gives  to  the  violin  its 
greatest  flexibility  of  tone,  and  enables  it,  better  than 
any  other  instrument,  to  give  voice  to  the  feeling  of  the 
composer  and  performer,  is  the  opportunity  it  offers  the 
player  of  producing  tones  the  most  varied,  from  harsh 
discord  to  the  sweetest  melody.  This  is  done  by  the 
manner  in  w^iich  the  string  is  bowed,  and  the  distance 
from  the  brldo-e  to  the  bow.  It  is  the  bowino-  that  dis- 
tinguishes  the  tones  of  a  Wilhelmj  from  those  of  the 
tyro.  In  spite  of  all  this  the  source  of  the  power  of  the 
\aolin  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  string  when  properly  con- 
trolled has  the  most  overtones  and  the  most  harmonic. 


VOICE  PRODUCTION  AND  ANALYSIS. 


181 


The  only  tone  source  which  equals,  and  indeed  excels, 
the  violin  in  flexibility  is  the  human  voice.  We  must 
now  seek  to  discover  the  causes  o£  this  marvelous  power. 


R5  I. 

Fiof.  2  shows  three  views  of  the  Lirvnx :  I,  a  section 
vertical  from  front  to  back ;  11,  the  left  side  of  the 
cartilages ;  III,  the  left  side  with  some  of  the  muscles. 
e  is  the  large  thyroid  cartilage,  the  front  point  of  which 
forms  the  "  Adam's  apple,"  just  behind  which  is  the 
front  attachment  of  the  vocal  cords.  This  cartilage  is 
hinged  upon  the  cricoid,  r/,  by  two  projecting  horns  d. 
Upon  the  back,  top  part  of  the  cricoid  sit  the  tv\o 
arytenoid  cartilages  6,  which  form  the  rear  attachment 
of  the  vocal  cords.  The  thyroid  is  held  in  place  by 
muscles  running  up  to  the  soft  palate  and  head,  and  down 
to  the  collar-bone.  When  the  muscles  h  are  contracted, 
the  front  edge  of  the  cricoid  is  drawn  up,  closing  the 
niche  c,  and  tilting  on  the  hinge  r/.  The  back  top  of 
the  cricoid,  with  the  arytenoids,  is  thereby  carried  back- 
ward, lengthening  the  cords  slightly  and  stretching 
them  more  tightly.  The  muscles  //,  which  thus  control 
the  tension  of  the  vocal  cords,  are  "  intrinsic  "  and  "  in- 
voluntary " — d'.e.,  they  are  not  directly  controlled  by  the 
will.       (J  is  the   top  of  the  windpipe  ;  /"  is   the  hyoid 


18? 


THE  LOOKER-ON. 
B  t 


Ti^Z. 


Fiii^. 


bone,  and  /  is  the  top  o£  the  epiglottis.  Fig.  3  gives 
various  views  of  the  arytenoids  upon  the  cricoid.  Fig. 
•i  is  a  view  of  the  larynx  from  the  back.  Fig.  5  shows 
four  photographs  of  the  vocal  cords,  looking  down  upon 
them.  The  front  attachment  is  out  of  sight  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  pictures,  being  covered  by  the  epiglottis  ;  I 
is  the  cords  themselves,  with  the  apparent  slit,  /.',  be- 
tween them  ;  at  the  back,  hh  are  the  arytenoid  cartilages. 
The  "  vocal  muscle "  is  attached  to  the  outside  of  the 
arytenoid  cartilage  at  a  point  near  u.  It  extends  for- 
ward through  the  thick  part  of  the  cord  and  is  attached 
near  the  cord  to  the  front  of  the  thyroid.  When  these 
muscles  are  contracted  they  cause  the  arytenoids  to  ro- 
tate around  a  point  near  hb,  throwing  the  forward  ends,  o, 
inward  toward  each  other.  This  rotation  of  the  arytenoids 
results  in  a  shortening  of  the  effective  length  of  the 
cords  and  a  consequent  raising  of  the  pitch.  In  I  and 
II  the  person  is  singing  low  G,  and  the  whole  length  of 
the  cord  is  in  vibration.  Ill  shows  the  position  when 
the  octave  G  (bass  clef)  is  sung,  and  IV  when  G  (mid- 
dle G)    is   the  note.     A  comparison  of  II,  III,  and  IV, 


VOICE  PRODUCTION  AND  ANALYSIS.       183 


markino'  the 


especially  as  to  the  position  of  the  crosses 
front  and  rear  points  of  the  arytenoids,  will  show  how 
the  cartilages  are  rotated  and  the  cord  shortened  as  the 
pitch  rises.  The  advantage  of  this  method  of  raising 
the  pitch  is  evident,  if  we  remember  that  to  get  the  oc- 
tave by  this  method  we  shorten  the  string  to  one-half, 
while  if  we  rely  solely  npon  increased  tension  the  stretch- 


Figure  6. 


inof  force  must  be  increased  fourfold.  Figf.  6  shows  a 
section  at  right  angles  to  /,  Fig.  2,  and  hence  to  the 
cords,  a  is  the  cricoid  and  e  the  thyroid  cartilage  ;  /,  /, 
are  the  vocal  cords  forming  the  slit,  A*;  7?^  shows  a  section 
of  the  vocal  muscle  in  each  cord.  In  proportion  as  this 
muscle  is  drawn  tighter  and  tighter,  it  holds  more  and 
more  of  the  cord  still,  finally  allowing  only  the  extreme 
edge  of  the  cord  to  vibrate.  This  secondary  action  of 
this  muscle  results  in  a  lessening  of  the  weight  of  the 
vibrating  part  of  the  cord,  thus  tending  also  to  raise  the 


184  THE    LOOKER-ON. 

pitch  of  the  tone.     The  muscles  which  control  the  aryte- 
noid cartilages  are  intrinsic  and  involuntary. 


Figure  7 . 

Fig\  7  is  a  schematic  representation  of  the  vocal  cord, 
showing  the  location  of  the  vocal  muscle  in,  and  how  it 
sends  its  fibers  into  the  body  of  the  cord.  When  m  is 
uncontracted,  or  but  slightly  so,  the  cord  may  vibrate 
from  the  edoe  as  far  back  as  >',  but  as  m  is  tightened 
more  and  more  it  holds  the  vocal  cord  first  as  far  as  .9, 
then  ^,  and  finally  for  the  highest  notes  (IV,  Fig.  5) 
only  the  part  between  u  and  the  edge  k  is  allowed  to 
vibrate,  giving  thus  a  much  lighter  string  and  thus 
helping  to  get  a  high  pitch  with  a  minimum  of  tension. 

It  will  be  seen  that  we  have  in  the  larynx  the  means 
for  controllino'  the  three  factors  which  determine  the 
pitch  of  a  string — length,  tension,  and  weight.  More- 
over, the  tuning  mechanism  of  a  reed,  plate,  or  membrane 
is  lacking.  Actual  analysis  shows  the  overtones  of 
the  vocal  cords  to  belono-  to  the  series  of  a  strino-, 
and  not  to  that  of  a  reed,  plate,  or  membrane.  We 
are  thus  forced  to  the  conclusion  that,  both  in  its 
action  and  in  its  resulting  tone,  the  larynx  is   a   string 


VOICE   PRODUCTION  AND  ANALYSIS.        185 

instrument.  The  J:hjri(j-tlnt  of  the  voice  is  not  controlled 
as  it  is  in  any  other  instrument ;  in  fact,  it  would  be  al- 
most impossible  to  so  control  it  mechanically.  In  the  first 
article  it  was  pointed  out  that  a  volume  of  air  more  or 
less  inclosed  can  act  to  reenforce  a  tone  of  its  own  par- 
ticular jjitch.  Now  we  have,  in  the  lower  and  upper 
pharynx,  mouth,  and  nose,  resonant  cavities,  the  size  and 
opening's  of  which  are  sufficiently  under  our  control  to 
enable  us  to  reenforce  certain  tones  or  pitches  at  the 
expense  of  others.  In  articulation  we  vary  these  cavities 
so  that  their  resonant  effect  changes  the  Manrj-tint  from 
that  of  one  vowel  to  another.  It  must,  however,  be 
borne  in  mind  that  these  overtones,  whose  variation  en- 
ables us  to  articulate,  and  to  put  feeling  into  the  voice, 
are  originated  in  the  cords  themselces,  and  that  they  are 
modified  only  as  to  their  relative  ijitensiff/  by  the  reso- 
nant cavities  above.  Any  other  origiu  of  the  overtones 
is  absolutely  incompatible,  as  well  with  theory  as  with 
observed  facts.  Another  fact  that  must  be  accepted  is 
that  the  only  resonance  available,  either  for  reenforce- 
ment  or  modification,  is  the  resonance  of  the  air  in  the 
above  cavities.  Any  vibrations  that  may  occur  in  the 
air  in  the  chest  are  useless  for  reenforcement,  since  the 
cavity  is  closed,  and  a  closed  cavity  cannot  reenforce  a 
tone.  Resonance  from  the  spine,  jaw,  or  muscle  is  simply 
ridiculous.  These  are  often  referred  to  as  "  valuable 
sounding-boards."  Bone  is  48.6  per  cent,  water,  and  the 
other  structures  are  from  75  per  cent,  to  90  per  cent, 
water.  Imagine  the  tones  of  a  piano  with  water-logged 
sounding-board  !  Let  any  one  take  an  ordinary  tuning- 
fork,  and,  striking  it,  press  the  shank  upon  a  board,  and 
hear  the  tone-sound.  Then,  striking  it  again,  try  to  get 
a  similar  reenforcement  by  pressing  the  shank  upon  his 
friend's  skull  or  spine  or  cheek  or  neck.      If  he  tries 


ISO  THE  LOOKER-ON. 

it  upon  himself  he  may  get  a  sHght  reenforcement,  but 
we  do  not  sing  for  our  own  ears. 

We  must  then  eonchide  that  since  the  intrinsic  mus- 
cles are  ample  for  the  control  of  pitch  they  should  be 
left  free  to  do  that,  and  not  be  overpowered  by  the  ex- 
trinsic, voluntary,  interfering  muscles  of  the  palate  and 
tongue,  whose  duty  it  is  to  control  the  khiiKj-tlnt  of  the 
tone ;  i.e.,  to  articulate  and  to  give  expression.  The 
two  systems  of  muscles  should  be  as  independent  as  the 
bellows  and  the  2)erformer  on  an  organ.  The  intrinsic 
muscles  can  and  will  satisfactorily  control  pitch,  if  not 
interfered  with.  The  extrinsic  muscles  can  and  will  ar- 
ticulate if  they  have  not  been  applied  to  the  improper 
function  of  controlling  pitch.  Voice-Production  and 
articulation  must  be  independent. 

The  following  article,  which  will  appear  in  the  next 

number,  will  be  devoted  to  an  examination  of  the  results 

of   an   analysis  of   voice?,  with  special  reference  to  the 

method  of  Voice-Production.     The   effects  of  improper 

use  of  the   resonance    cavities,   and  of   the    interfering 

muscles  of  the  soft  palate  and  tongue,  will  be  described. 

The  way  in  Avhich  these  defects  may  be  corrected  will  be 

indicated. 

(7b  he  continued.^ 


VOICE  PRODUCTION  AND  ANAL- 
YSIS. 

By  Prof.  Wm.  Hallock. 
Dr.  Floyd  S.  Muckey. 

III. 

In  the  two  articles  Avhicli  have  already  appeared,  we 
endeavored  to  set  forth  some  of  the  principles  of  acous- 
tics and  anatomy  which  are  involved  in  scientifically 
correct  voice  production.  We  shall  now  attempt  to  ap- 
ply the  principles,  and  illustrate  their  effect  upon  the 
character  of  the  tone  produced.  It  will  be  well  at  first  to 
use  one  voice  as  a  type  to  show  variations  due  to  method 
and  articulation,  and  then  show  where  the  same  pecu- 
liarities are  present  in  other  voices. 

In  the  estimation  of  a  great  number  of  teachers  and 
l^upils,  carrying  power  is  the  great  thing  in  a  voice,  it 
must  be  able  to  fill  the  large  auditorium  with  a  full  tone 
whose  pitch  shall  be  readily  recognized,  even  a  piano 
tone  must  carry  to  the  back  rows,  and  toj)  gallery.  To 
do  this  a  tone  must  have  "  fundamental"  and  plenty  of 
it.  The  fundamental  must  do  the  heavy  work,  it  must  be 
the  backbone  of  the  wiiole  tone.  Those  who  will  not  ad- 
mit that  carrying  j)ower  is  the  siimmuin  honuiii  hold 
that  the  really  desirable  thing  is  the  quality  of  the  tone, 
the  timhre,  the  klang  tint.  This  quality  is  due  to  the 
relative  intensity  and  number  of  the  overtones  which 
are  present  with  the  pitch  tone  or  fundamental.  It 
would  seem,  natural  that  a  tone  to  be  well  rounded  and 


376  Till-:    L()(>Ki:i!-ON. 

"symnietricar'  should  have  :i  linn,  strong  fundamental 
wi^li  tlie  overtones  well  developed,  but  their  relative 
strength  diminishing  as  tliey  rise  in  pitch  in  the  series. 
Such  a  tone  is  well  represented  in  Fig.  1,  which  is  ana, 
tis  ill  IV/tlier,  in  tlic  voice  which  has  been  most  studied. 
It  will  be  seen  tliat  as  the  pitch  rises  tlie  serrated  effect 
is  less  pronounced,  that  is,  tlie  strength  of  the  overtones 
becomes  less  ;  yet  a  careful  count  of  the  negative  shows 
that  for  one  wave  in  the  first  line  (fundamental),  there 
are  two  in  the  second  (first  overtone),  three  in  the  third 
(second  overtone),  and  so  on,  to  eight  in  the  top  line, 
which  is  the  limit  of  our  ai3paratus.  Compare  Fig.  1 
with  Fig.  2  which  is  the  same  vowel  by  the  same  voice, 
except  that  here  the  palate  is  raised  and  the  i:>roduction 
is  forced,  giving  a  rough  hard  tone.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  overtones  are  stronger  than  the  fundamental.  The 
tone  is  top-heavy.  Also  note  that  number  four  is  so 
overpoweringly  strong  that  it  forces  its  rate  throngh  5, 
G,  7,  and  8,  and  drowns  them  out  if  they  are  present. 
Fig.  3,  is  another  voice,  d  as  in  marble,  tliis  tone  is  over- 
whelmingly strong  in  3,  with  little  or  no  fundamental, 
and  nothing  above  3,  and  yet  this  is  the  favorite  tone  of 
a  great  authority  on  voice  production.  It  is  much  too 
strong  in  the  middle,  and  weak  at  each  end.  Fig.  4  is 
still  another  «,  much  too  strong  in  5. 

As  to  the  effects  of  articulation  upon  the  tone,  one 
only  needs  to  compare  Fig.  1,  a.  Fig.  5,  a  as  in  late.  Fig. 
0,  ee  as  in  meet.  Fig.  7,  o  as  in  no,  Fig.  8,  oo  as  in  food, 
to  see  that  it  is  the  overtones  which  determine  the 
vowel.  It  must  be  said,  however,  that  in  Figs.  5  to  8  the 
fundamental  should  be  stronger  for  a  good  tone  with 
carrying  power. 

A  great  many  people  have  been  kind  enough  to  per- 
mit us  to  make  such  photographic  record  of  their  tones. 


VOICE  PR OD  UGTION  AND  A NA  L  YSIS.         377 

Although  the  first  effect  was  to  bring  out,  in  its  finest 
details,  the  extreme  complexity  of  the  subject,  still,  as 
evidence  accumulated,  it  emphasized,  even  more  forcibly, 
the  essential  but  distinct  parts  played  by  the  funda- 
mental and  overtones  in  moulding  a  tone. 

In  spite  of  the  fatigue  and  rush  of  the  close  of  the  Met- 
ropolitan Opera  season,  most  of  the  greatest  artists  kind- 
ly consented  to  sing  a  few  tones  into  our  inartistic  ap- 
paratus, and  enable  us  to  put  the  final  test  to  our  idea  as  to 
what  constitutes  a  good  tone.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  these  artists  acted  under  unaccustomed  difficulties. 
It  is  not  for  them  to  sing  a  simple  tone  into  a  box. 
Their  forte  is  to  thrill  an  audience.  Moreover  the  depth 
of  the  serrations  must  be  compared  in  each  photograph 
by  itself.  Because,  had  the  singer  produced  a  louder 
tone  or  nearer  to  the  aj^paratus,  all  the  serrations  would 
have  been  more  pronounced  ;  for  examx)le,  we  can  draw 
only  a  very  poor  conclusion  as  to  the  strength  of  a  voice 
from  our  photograph,  but  we  can  judge  its  character. 
In  order  to  see  the  waves  in  the  fundamental  clearly, 
the  picture  should  be  looked  at  obliquely.  In  the  ladies' 
voices  the  difficulty  is  still  greater  because  singing  an 
octave  higher  than  our  fundamental,  the  api:)aratus  can 
record  only  three  overtones,  and  at  that  time  only  re- 
corded two,  numbers  2,  4,  6  and  8  in  the  male  series.  As 
the  pitch  of  the  fundamental  rises,  the  number  of  ac- 
companying overtones  decreases,  so  that  the  highest  so- 
prano or  falsetto  tones  are  nearly  "pure."  In  Fig.  9, 
we  have  Nordica's  a  with  its  strong  fundamental  and  its 
well  marked  overtones.  Her  ee  in  Fig.  10,  is  character- 
ized by  that  same  2)owerful  fundamental,  indeed  it 
must  doubtless  be  admitted  that  she  has  a  truly  great 
voice. 

Fig.  11,  is  a  photograph  of  Scalchi's  voice.     It  will  be 


378  TJIK  LOOKER-ON. 

seen  that  lier  a  is  not  qnite  so  symmetrical  as  Fig.  9, 
being  a  little  stronger  in  2  arid  weaker  in  3.  This  is 
much  better  than  to  have  3  stronger  than  2. 

The  brilliancy  of  Calve' s  voice  may  be  accounted'- for 
possibly  by  the  strength  of  3  in  her  a  Fig.  12. 

The  remainder  of  the  figures  are  as  follows  : 

Fiff.  13.  Jean  tie  Rezke  «       ^     „    „  ,,         ,  ,         , 

°  all  of  tJiese  tones  are  character- 

Fipf.  14.  do.  ec      \  •     i  ,  ^  ^-     ^ 

°  y         izeu  by  a   reJatively  very 

Fiff.  15.  Ednard  Je  Eezke  a    [  ,  „      ,  .  , 

°  strong  tnndamental. 

Fig.  16.  do.  ee) 

Fig.  IT.  Arimondi  a  \  tliese  tones  seem  a  little  forced, 

Fiff.  18.  Cremonini  a  \         the   fundamental    is    not 


Fig.  19.  Ancoua  il  )  strong  enough. 

A  careful  comparative  study  of  the  above  will  develop 
certain  individual  characteristics,  but  we  believe  will 
also  manifest  the  presence  of  a  good  strong  backbone  to 
the  tone  in  its  fundamental,  together  with  a  compara- 
tively sj^mmetrical  supply  of  overtones  to  give  fulness 
and  flexibility. 

The  conclusion  which  we  draw  from  these  examples 
may  be  briefly  stated.  The  above  characteristics  of  a 
good  desirable  tone,  with  quality  and  carrying  power 
not  forced,  can  best  be  obtained  by  a  use  of  the  vocal 
mechanism  which  shall  give  to  the  larynx  entire  control 
of  pitch  by  the  intrinsic,  involuntary  muscles,  leaving 
the  /tZ<2/^^  ^mzf  or  articulation,  to  the  extrinsic,  voluntary 
muscles  of  the  pharynx,  mouth,  etc.  One  must  ahvays 
bear  in  mind  the  all  important  part  played  by  resonant 
reenforcement  in  the  mouth  and  nose  cavities. 

How  can  all  this  be  done  %  The  soft  palate  is  the  tell- 
tale. Take  a  small  mirror,  seat  yourself  with  your  back 
to  a  window  or  a  lamp.  So  hold  the  mirror  that  the  light 
is  reflected  into  the  mouth  at  the  same  time  that  you  see 


VOICE  PR OD  UCTIOX  A  ND  A NA L  YSIS.         379 

the  interior  of  the  mouth  reflected  in  the  mirror.  Study 
carefully  the  aj^pearance  of  the  mouth  and  pharj^nx 
Avhen  all  the  muscles  are  relaxed,  then  produce  a  tone 
without  disturbing  this  general  ]30sition  of  rest. 

When  this  is  easy  for  low  tones,  run  up  tlie  scale, 
never  permitting  any  motion  of  the  soft  palate  or  phar- 
ynx. When  one  can  sing  up  and  down  the  scale  with 
the  soft  palate  and  pharynx  stationary,  it  is  pretty  cer- 
tain that  the  extrinsic  muscles  are  not  interfering  with 
the  action  of  the  intrinsic.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
this  exercise  is  intended  to  train  the  intrinsic  muscles 
in  the  complete  control  of  pitch,  independent  of  any 
action  of  the  extrinsic  muscles.  After  this  is  accom- 
plished, a  proper  use  of  the  extrinsic  muscles  and  reson- 
ance cavities  will  give  the  tone  its  desired  quality. 

It  is  well  to  hold  the  nose,  once  in  a  while,  to  see  if 
the  tone  is  really  coming  out  through  the  nasal  resona- 
tors. Do  not  be  discouraged  and  conclude  it  is  impos- 
sible. It  is  being  done  by  many,  and  with  excellent  re- 
sults. 

AVe  have  endeavored  to  express  our  beliefs  upon  this 
complex  subject,  and  the  reasons  therefore.  Our  one 
object  is  to  arrive  at  the  truth.  If  we  are  in  error,  the 
sooner  we  know  it  the  better.  Hence  we  are  glad  to  hear 
the  other  side,  and  to  discuss  the  question. 

If  we  succeed  in  lessening  the  number  of  voices 
wrecked  by  false  methods,  we  have  accomplished  our 
j)urpose  and  sliall  feel  amply  rewarded. 


Fig.  3,  p.  6. — Section  of  resonator  and  its  manometric  capsule.  A.  Reson- 
ator. B.  Mouth  of  resonator  where  air-waves  enter.  C.  Small  extension 
through  which  the  air-waves  strike  upon  the  rubber  drum  between  D  and  C. 
D.  Space  behind  the  drum  to  which  the  gas  enters  through  the  tube  E,  and 
from  which  the  gas  passes  out  and  burns  at  F.  G.  Wooden  plug  carrying 
gas  tubes  and  hollowed  out  to  form  the  space  D.  The  rubber  is  stretched 
and  tied  over  the  end  of  G.  H.  Block  to  hold  G.  P.  Plank  on  which  the 
whole  is  mounted. 


Fig.  4,  p.  8. — General  view  of  the  apparatus  showing  the  resonators,  the 
rotating  mirror  and  the  camera  at  the  back. 


Fig.  5,  p.  8. — General  view  showing  the  capsules  and  their  attachments, 
the  flames  reflected  in  the  mirror,  and  the  sliding  plate-holder  at  the  back 
of  the  camera.  A  spherical  resonator  stands  on  the  corner  of  the  table  and 
our  standard  tuning  fork  with  its  cylindrical  resonator  is  on  the  low  stool. 


Fig.  6,  p.  8. — Photograph  of  the  motion  of  the  flames  -while  singing  the 
vowel  a  as  in  father.  The  lower  line  is  the  fundamental,  and  the  others  are 
the  1st,  2d,  3d,  etc.,  overtones  in  the  order  of  their  pitch.  One  wave  of  the 
fundamental  corresponds  to  two  in  the  first  overtone,  three  in  the  second, 
four  in  the  third  and  so  on. 


it 


"n 


D 


C 


B 


A 


Fig.  1,  p.  175 


I  .    fl- 


Fig.  5,  p.  182. 


Fig.  1,  Art.  III. 


Fig.  2,  Art.  III. 


Fig.  3,  Art.  III. 


Fig.  4,  Art.  III. 


Fio.  5,  Art.  III. 


Fig.  6,  Art.  III. 


Fig.  7,  Art.  III. 


Fig.  8,  Art.  III. 


Fig.  9,  Akt.  III. 


FiCx.  10,  Art.  III. 


Fig.  11,  Art.  III. 


Fig.  12,  Art.  III. 


Fig.  13,  Akt.  III. 


Fig.  14,  Art.  III. 


.:^Ml,lli»||.^M>»»  *****  ♦  %»|iMk 


%  «>«^%iii  fiiyiik%^«M»^  *Nkfc%  «  %%  1 


*%^'^''Mii*v\'*i^%%i,%%^ . 


Ft  J   I"),    Art.  III. 


Fig.  16,  Art.  III. 


Fig.  17,  Art.  III. 


Fig.  18,  Akt.  111. 


Fig.  19,  Akt.  III. 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 

This  book  is  due  on  the  date  indicated  below,  or  at  the 
expiration  of  a  definite  period  after  the  date  of  borrowing, 
as  provided  by  the  rules  of  the  Library  or  by  special  ar- 
rangement with  the  Librarian  in  charge. 

DATE  BORROWED 

DATE  DUE 

DATE  BORROWED 

DATE  DUE 

JUN2 

1964 

i 

r^\i 

l\n^ti^ 

r^«  *  * 

C2S'e38)M50 

Annex 


,P306  »  _    E15 

Ilallock 


Voice  production  and  analysis 


Knne^ 


